Once you have been diagnosed with breast cancer, usually treatment starts first with surgery. There are generally two components to the operation: 1) the breast, and 2) the axilla (armpit).
In the breast, there are two choices: 1) lumpectomy (removing the cancer lump and some surrounding tissue), or 2) mastectomy (removing the entire breast). Just a quarter of a century ago, almost all patients had mastectomy, even if their breast cancer is small. But over the past few decades, it has been demonstrated that for small cancers, lumpectomy followed by radiation treatment is just as good as mastectomy. Now, "small" is a relative term. The goal of a lumpectomy is that the breast would still look like a breast after all the treatment is done. In someone with small breasts, a "small" cancer may occupy a significant portion of her breast. An adequate lumpectomy in this case may result in an unacceptable cosmetic outcome, and the patient may actually prefer having mastectomy with plastic surgery reconstruction. Another factor is the number of cancers in the breast. Usually, mastectomy is required for multifocal cancer (cancer discovered in two or more locations in the same breast)
Pictures of Breast Cancer
At the same time as the breast operation, surgery in the axilla also is carried out for invasive (or infiltrating) breast cancer, as well as in selected cases of DCIS (ductal carcinoma in situ). This is done to determine whether the breast cancer has spread to the lymph nodes in the axilla. In general, there are two choices: 1) sentinel node resection, or 2) axillary node dissection. In sentinel node resection, the surgeon maps the lymphatic drainage of the breast cancer to the first lymph node that receives this lymph, i.e. the sentinel node(s). Only a few (1-3) nodes are then usually removed. In axillary node dissection, more lymph nodes are resected, usually 8-25. Sentinel node resection is a good choice for small early cancer that is unlikely to have spread to the axilla. When the suspicion for cancer already in lymph nodes is high, then full axillary node dissection should be performed.
The above are only general guidelines. No two breast cancer patients are exactly alike, and therefore the decision making process is different and unique for each individual person. Regardless of any one else's advice, you should make the choice that you personally will be able to live with for the rest of your life.
Breast cancer is the most common cancer and the second leading cause of cancer deaths in women in the United States. In 2008, approximately 184,450 patients were estimated to be diagnosed with invasive breast cancer, and an estimated 40,930 were estimated to die of this disease. Furthermore, over 50,000 female carcinoma in situ breast cases would have been diagnosed. The etiology of breast cancer is poorly understood with multiple genetic and environmental factors involved in the initiation and progression of cancer.
Scandinavian Twin Study: For years, there has been a hot debate as to whether the cause of breast cancer is genetic or environmental. Then in 2000, Lichtenstein and his colleagues at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden published their study of 44,788 pairs of twins from the Swedish, Danish, and Finnish twin registries. In this study, they looked at cancer risk with 28 different types of cancers and did statistical modeling of genetic and hereditary contributions in eleven different cancer types. For breast cancer, they clearly showed that only 27% of breast cancers were due to genetic factors. This was an even lower hereditary component than other common cancers such as prostate and colorectal. This study and others have confirmed the fact that over 70% of breast cancers are influenced by environmental factors.
BRCA genes: Although much attention has been made about hereditary breast cancer, only two genes are commonly tested for breast cancer risk assessment. These two genes are tumor suppressor genes named "BRCA1" and "BRCA2" that are involved with DNA repair. These two genes only account for about 5% of all breast cancers. Because of the Scandinavian twin study, most experts believed that there are other yet to be discovered genes involved with breast cancer. Because the chance of having a BRCA mutation in the general population is so low, genetic testing is not indicated in most patients. However, if a patient has a family history of breast cancer, then a mathematical model can be used to determine if BRCA testing is indicated. The likelihood of being a BRCA carrier increases with the number of relatives who had cancer and if the cancers occurred earlier in life. For example, in families with four or more cases of breast or ovarian cancer under the age of 60, over 80% are found to have a damaged version of BRCA1 or BRCA2. If a patient is a carrier of one or both of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, her risk of breast cancer dramatically increases. According to estimates of lifetime risk, about 13.2% (132 out of 1,000 individuals) of women in the general population will develop breast cancer, compared with estimates of 36-85% (360–850 out of 1,000) of women with an altered BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene. In other words, women with an altered BRCA1 and/or BRCA2 gene are up to eight times more likely to develop breast cancer than women without alterations in those genes. The BRCA1 mutation confers a higher risk than a BRCA2 mutation. Women who inherit a damaged BRCA1 gene have a 60-85% chance of developing breast cancer at some stage in their lives and a 20-40% chance of developing ovarian cancer. For BRCA2, the risks are 40-60% and 10-20%, respectively.
Family History and Breast Cancer: Although the spotlight in hereditary breast cancer has been directed on the BRCA genes, the majority of patients with a family history of breast cancer are BRCA1 and BRCA2 negative. Even in these BRCA negative patients, however, there is an increased risk of developing cancer with a family history of breast cancer. Six factors (unrelated to BRCA genes) have been studied in patients with a family history of breast cancer. They are as follows:
1. Degree of relationship: If the family member with a history of cancer is a first degree relative, the increased risk is much greater than for second degree relatives.
2. Number of relatives who have had breast cancer: People with two or more family members who have had breast cancer are at higher risk than those with only one affected relative.
3. Age of onset of cancer: If the relative developed breast cancer at an early age (pre-menopausal), the risk is higher than if the relative developed post menopausal breast cancer.
4. Bilateral breast cancer: If the relative has a history of bilateral breast cancer, the risk is greater than having a relative with unilateral breast cancer.
5. Gender of the relative: If the family member with breast cancer is a man, the risk is higher.
6. Other related early onset tumors: If there is a family history of early onset ovarian cancer, this incurs an increased risk for a person.
The following is an excerpt from the American Society of Breast Surgeons:
1. Early onset breast cancer (diagnosed before age 50)
2. Two primary breast cancers, either bilateral or ipsilateral
3. A family history of early onset breast cancer
4. Male breast cancer
5. A personal or family history of ovarian cancer
6. Ashkenazi (Eastern European) Jewish heritage
7. A previously identified BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation in the family
Any one of these features alone indicates a risk for harboring a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. The presence of more than one of these features raises that risk to greater than 10%, the traditional cutoff for recommending a BRCA test. Such patients should have access to BRCA testing.
Can the Risk of Prostate Cancer Really be Reduced with Diet and Exercise?
Men have a tendency to take care of their bodies on the outside. They go to the gym, lift weights and do various other exercises that will give them a great physique. But what do they do for their inner bodies? This may be one of the reasons that men come down with diseases that are often preventable with a little knowledge. As men, we need to do a little more research and have an understanding of what we can do to protect our inner bodies.
Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer in men. At firdt the symptoms of the disease are asymptomatic; for this reason it is commonly referred to as the silent killer. Prostate cancer has very few early symptoms and those such as trouble urinating or painful ejaculation are also symptoms of much less serious disease such as enlarged prostate.
The function of the prostate is to close the urethra after ejection. It is also essential for ejaculation. There will be more than 200,000 cases of prostate cancer diagnosed this year that will result in over 30,000 deaths. Maintaining good prostate health requires us to have the necessary information available to us. We would like to review a few things that men can do to assure good prostate health.
1. GET SOME EXERCISE
We are all aware that exercise is good for getting our hearts pumping, lowering cholesterol and protecting us from heart attacks and strokes. But, did you know that exercise can also protect us from some forms of cancer, especially prostate cancer? Research has shown that men who maintain a daily exercise schedule have a 75% less chance of developing cancer and heart disease than men who do not participate in a regular program.
By participating in exercise you get the blood flowing to your vital organs. This has a beneficial effect because it enhances the exchange of nutrients and helps with the elimination of waste products from our cells and tissues. It can also keep our weight under control further reducing the risks of some types of cancers. Stronger muscles also generate better blood flow and circulation to our cells and tissues.
2. EAT A HEALTHY DIET
When we eat a diet high in vegetables and low in saturated fats we are actually reducing the risks of some forms of cancer. Scientists don't know why but men that eat a diet high in red meat are more likely to get prostate cancer. Some feel that there may be fats in red meat that are harmful to the prostate and others feel that chemicals produced during grilling may be responsible. It may also be that increasing the amount of red meat one consumes reduces the amount of fruits and vegetables we eat.
It is recommended that we eat 5-7 servings of fruits and vegetables a day. Research has shown that men who follow this type of diet have much lower rates of cancer than men who do not. While consuming this many servings a day may be difficult for many, supplementation is also an option. Free radicals in the body have been shown to convert normal healthy cells into cancerous ones. For these reason tomatoes based products are particularly useful. They contain a high amount of Lycopene which is a powerful antioxidant that can reduce the number of free radicals in our bodies.
3. SPEAK TO YOUR DOCTOR
Screening is an important part of prevention. This involves looking for signs of the disease before symptom arise. There are a few ways this can be done now and your doctor will be able to suggest the one that best fits your situation. This is the time when treatment will be most effective.
He or she will be able to access any risk factors such as family history or race and put you on a screening schedule suited for your particular situation.
In conclusion, while prostate cancer can be a killer there are things that we can easily do to reduce the risk of us contracting it. The added benefit of some of the things suggested above is that they are also positives to your overall health in general. Just by reducing the risk of chronic heart disease, diabetes and some forms of cancers with some simple lifestyle changes we can all live longer and healthier lives.
It is critical for women to make sure that they are always in good health. However, there are plenty of potential problems that lurk in the background that can victimize women anytime. One of the most dreaded diseases that is a threat to women is inflammatory breast cancer.
The mention of the term “breast cancer” is already enough to make most women cringe at the haunting difficulties that the disease brings. Because the disease is a known killer in women, it becomes very important to try to avoid it, or if affected already, to endeavor at minimizing the symptoms that one may feel.
What is Inflammatory Breast Cancer?
Inflammatory breast cancer is a type of breast cancer that is characterized with the breasts looking red and swollen. The cancer can attack women at any age. What is more alarming is that unlike the regular breast cancer or other breast-related problems, the disease is not characterized by lumps. This characteristic makes detection of the disease very difficult because it cannot be detected by mammography or ultrasound.
The Symptoms of Inflammatory Breast Cancer
Inflammatory breast cancer is known to be an aggressive type of breast cancer. In the disease, the cancer cells blocks the lymph vessels in the skin of the breast. The disease got its name from the inflammation that is exercised by the breasts, resulting in the reddish color. The disease is known to manifest itself in as quick a time frame as overnight.
The following are the symptoms of inflammatory breast cancer:
* The breast becomes harder or firmer.
* The affected breast is warmer compared to the unaffected one.
* There is an itching on the affected breast.
* The lymph nodes swell, especially under the arm or in the neck area.
* The breasts may have bruises that do not heal.
* A sudden and unexplained swelling of the breast.
* Pain in the affected breast.
* The reddened area in the affected breast is characterized by the thickness and the texture of orange.
* There are skin changes on the affected breast.
Inflammatory breast cancer is also classified into three stages. This is to make treatment better: The symptoms characteristic to a particular stage requires the kind of treatment fit for an infection in that stage.
* Stage 3B: In this stage, the cancer has spread to the tissues nearest to the breast, especially in the chest wall.
* Stage 3C: This means that the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes in the collarbone. It also means infection to areas near the neck as well as under the arms.
* Stage 4. This is the most advanced stage of the cancer. In this stage, the infection has spread to other organs like the lungs and liver. It may have spread also to the bones.
Treatment of Inflammatory Breast Cancer
Chemotherapy is still the best means to kill the cancer. This is commonly done before surgery. On the other hand, other methods include radiation therapy to kill the cancer cells. Because radiation therapy is more specific in targeting the cancer cells, it is now gaining popularity fast as a good method for treating the cancer.
Eating Cabbage And Cancer Prevention
Can eating your broccoli and cabbage help protect you against lung cancer? According to a study published in the October 29, 2005 issue of the British medical journal, Lancet, the answer is yes.
This isn't the first time that it's been suggested that cruciferous vegetables may have a preventive effect against lung cancer, but it is the largest scale study to date. There have been a number of smaller observational studies that reported a possible link between the vegetables and lung cancer prevention, but they were considered to be too small to be definitive. This study, conducted by a group of researchers at the Genetic Epidemiology Group at the International Agency for Research on Cancer in Lyon, France, compared 2,141 people diagnosed with lung cancer with a group of healthy people in the Czech Republic, Romania, Russia, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia. They chose countries where the consumption of vegetables like cabbage, broccoli and Brussels sprouts has been traditionally high.
"We found protective effects with at least weekly consumption of cruciferous vegetables", the research letter in the Lancet stated.
Researchers believe that the beneficial effects of cruciferous vegetables are due to the high content of isothiocyanates, phytonutrients that seem to have a strong anti-cancer effect. They are a more bioavailable form of glucosinolates, which also have been shown to have anti-cancer effects. The research conducted at Lyons takes the knowledge a step further.
Studies have shown that isothiocyanates neutralize cancerous cells by inhibiting cell proliferation. The cycle of a normal cell in the body proceeds from cell division, through specialization, and eventually, when the cell has either become damaged or has finished doing its job, to apoptosis – or cell death. The problem with cancer cells is that they don’t go through apoptosis. For some reason, their mutations make them resistant to the message that it's time to die. Isothiocyanates appear to be a catalyst that triggers apoptosis. In laboratory experiments, they've induced apoptosis in a number of cell lines. They also seem to slow proliferation of a number of types of cancer cells, including lung cancer lines.
The researchers at Lyons found that there is also a correlation between genetics and the preventive effect of cruciferous vegetables. There are two genes that produce an enzyme that remove isothiocyanates from the body. The Lyons study correlated the results from a diet questionnaire with blood tests to determine whether those studied had inactive or active forms of those genes. They found that in people who had an inactive form of one of the two genes had a 37% lower risk of developing lung cancer. Those with an inactive form of the other had a 33% lower risk of developing lung cancer. In those with both genes inactive, there was a 72% reduction in lung cancer risk. In those who had two active gene types, there was no difference in risk at all.
Said Paul Brennan, lead author of the research letter, "this indicates that there is a specific protective effect against lung cancer from cruciferous vegetables".
Random trials to absolutely confirm the findings would be expensive and time consuming, Brennan notes. In the meantime, though, including cabbage, kale, Brussels sprouts, broccoli or turnips in your diet at least once a week may help reduce your risk of developing lung cancer.
